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Question 121:
What security control monitors and restricts application programming interface access?
A) API gateway
B) Open access
C) Unrestricted use
D) Anonymous connection
Answer: A
Explanation:
API gateways monitor and restrict application programming interface access by serving as centralized control points through which all API traffic flows, enabling authentication, authorization, rate limiting, logging, and policy enforcement protecting backend services from unauthorized access, abuse, and attacks. Organizations deploy API gateways providing comprehensive security for microservices, cloud applications, and integration platforms exposing APIs to internal applications, partners, or public developers.
Gateway capabilities include authentication verifying API consumer identity through various mechanisms including API keys, OAuth tokens, JWT validation, or mutual TLS, authorization determining what authenticated consumers can access based on roles or scopes, rate limiting preventing abuse by restricting request volumes from individual consumers, traffic management routing requests to appropriate backend services and load balancing across instances, protocol translation converting between different formats or versions, request validation ensuring incoming requests meet schema requirements, response filtering controlling what data returns to consumers, and comprehensive logging recording all API transactions for security monitoring and usage analytics.
Security benefits include threat protection detecting and blocking malicious requests before reaching vulnerable backend services, DDoS prevention through rate limiting and traffic filtering, data loss prevention controlling what information APIs expose, centralized policy enforcement applying consistent security across all APIs rather than requiring individual service security, and simplified security management through single administration point for API security policies.
API security risks that gateways address include unauthorized access from inadequate authentication, excessive data exposure returning more information than necessary, injection attacks exploiting insufficient input validation, broken authentication from weak token validation, security misconfigurations exposing services improperly, and mass assignment vulnerabilities allowing unauthorized data modification. Gateways provide protective layers between consumers and backend services.
Implementation approaches include cloud-based gateways offering managed services without infrastructure overhead, on-premises gateways providing complete control within organizational datacenters, and hybrid deployments combining approaches for different requirements. Organizations select approaches based on control needs, compliance requirements, performance considerations, and operational preferences.
Best practices include implementing OAuth 2.0 for robust authorization, requiring TLS encryption for all communications, validating all inputs preventing injection attacks, implementing granular scopes limiting what each consumer can access, monitoring API usage detecting suspicious patterns, maintaining current gateway versions patching vulnerabilities, and regularly reviewing API security policies ensuring continued appropriateness.
Option B is incorrect because open access provides no monitoring or restriction of API usage.
Option C is wrong because unrestricted use allows unlimited API access without control.
Option D is incorrect because anonymous connection prevents authentication and authorization enforcement.
Question 122:
Which security framework provides guidance for Internet of Things security?
A) NIST IoT Cybersecurity Framework
B) Fashion standards
C) Cooking guidelines
D) Sports regulations
Answer: A
Explanation:
NIST IoT Cybersecurity Framework provides comprehensive guidance for Internet of Things security addressing unique challenges of resource-constrained devices, diverse device types, long deployment lifecycles, and operational constraints that traditional security approaches often don’t adequately address. This framework helps manufacturers building IoT devices and organizations deploying them implement appropriate security controls.
IoT security challenges include limited processing power and memory preventing implementation of full security features common in traditional computing, constrained power budgets especially for battery-operated devices limiting security operations, long operational lifecycles where devices remain deployed for years or decades requiring sustained security, diverse manufacturers with varying security expertise and commitments, lack of standard security frameworks across device types, difficult patch management for deployed devices lacking update mechanisms, and physical accessibility since many devices deploy in unsecured locations vulnerable to tampering.
Framework guidance organizes into core baseline providing fundamental security features all devices should implement, non-technical supporting capabilities organizational and procedural controls manufacturers and deployers implement, and device cybersecurity capability core baseline detailing specific technical security features. This structure addresses both technical device security and organizational processes supporting security throughout lifecycles.
Core capabilities include device identification uniquely identifying each device for management and monitoring, device configuration enabling secure configuration management, data protection ensuring information confidentiality and integrity, logical access control restricting functions to authorized entities, software update mechanisms enabling security patches, cybersecurity event logging recording security-relevant activities for monitoring, and secure boot ensuring devices execute only authentic firmware and software. These foundational capabilities establish minimum security baselines.
Organizational responsibilities include security requirements integration into procurement specifications, risk assessment evaluating IoT security implications, secure deployment procedures configuring devices properly, network segmentation isolating IoT devices from critical systems, monitoring detecting security events involving IoT devices, incident response addressing IoT security incidents, and secure decommissioning properly disposing of devices at lifecycle end. Comprehensive security requires coordination between device capabilities and organizational practices.
Implementation strategies include inventory management tracking all deployed IoT devices, network isolation limiting IoT device access and traffic, strong authentication especially for administrative access, encryption protecting stored and transmitted data, regular security updates applying manufacturer patches promptly, monitoring unusual device behaviors, and default credential changes replacing factory settings immediately upon deployment.
Option B is incorrect because fashion standards address clothing rather than IoT security guidance.
Option C is wrong because cooking guidelines address food preparation rather than Internet of Things security.
Option D is incorrect because sports regulations govern athletics rather than providing IoT cybersecurity frameworks.
Question 123:
What attack technique exploits time-of-check to time-of-use vulnerabilities?
A) Race condition attack
B) Data backup
C) System update
D) Network configuration
Answer: A
Explanation:
Race condition attacks exploit time-of-check to time-of-use vulnerabilities where elapsed time between security validation and resource use enables attackers changing conditions after checks but before use. These timing vulnerabilities exist in systems making security decisions based on state that can change before actions occur, allowing unauthorized access or privilege escalation through precise timing manipulation.
TOCTOU vulnerabilities commonly occur in file system operations where programs check file permissions or contents, perform additional processing, then access files assuming conditions remain unchanged. Attackers exploit timing windows by modifying files, changing symbolic links, or altering permissions between check and use operations. Operating systems with concurrent process execution and shared resources face particular challenges preventing race conditions.
Attack scenarios include privilege escalation where programs running with elevated privileges check file ownership before accessing them, enabling attackers changing files to point at privileged resources between verification and access, gaining unauthorized access to sensitive files. Financial transaction races manipulate account balances or transaction states between validation and commitment. Authentication bypasses exploit timing between credential verification and access granting.
Exploitation requires precise timing understanding exact windows between check and use operations, the ability to influence system state during windows, and often repeated attempts since timing must align correctly. Sophisticated exploits might deliberately slow systems through resource exhaustion increasing exploitation windows. Success enables attackers performing unauthorized actions that security checks intended preventing.
Prevention strategies include atomic operations combining check and use into single indivisible operations preventing state changes between them, locking mechanisms ensuring exclusive access preventing concurrent modifications, using file descriptors or handles rather than paths for subsequent operations after validation, avoiding checking then acting patterns through different security approaches, and proper synchronization in multithreaded applications preventing concurrent execution introducing race conditions.
Code review and testing help identify race conditions through careful examination of security-relevant code for TOCTOU patterns, stress testing under concurrent load exposing timing issues that normal testing misses, and specialized tools detecting race condition vulnerabilities in source code or during execution. Early detection during development prevents vulnerabilities reaching production.
Option B is incorrect because data backup preserves information rather than exploiting timing vulnerabilities.
Option C is wrong because system updates apply patches rather than exploiting race conditions.
Option D is incorrect because network configuration sets parameters rather than attacking timing vulnerabilities.
Question 124:
Which security mechanism prevents unauthorized copying or distribution of digital content?
A) Digital rights management
B) Open sharing
C) Unrestricted copying
D) Public distribution
Answer: A
Explanation:
Digital rights management prevents unauthorized copying or distribution of digital content through technological controls restricting how users can access, copy, modify, or share protected material including ebooks, music, movies, software, and documents. Organizations use DRM protecting intellectual property, enforcing licensing terms, preventing piracy, and controlling content distribution according to business models.
DRM technologies include encryption rendering content unreadable without authorized decryption keys, access controls requiring authentication before content access, license management tracking authorized users and devices, watermarking embedding identifiable marks enabling tracking of unauthorized distribution sources, and copy protection preventing or limiting content duplication. Multiple technologies often combine providing layered protection.
Implementation approaches vary by content type where streaming services use encryption and access control preventing downloads, ebook platforms limit sharing and printing while allowing reading on authorized devices, software licensing validates activation keys and limits installations, and enterprise document protection restricts copying, editing, or forwarding of sensitive business documents. Each approach balances protection against usability.
Benefits for content providers include revenue protection by preventing unauthorized distribution reducing piracy impacts, licensing enforcement ensuring usage complies with terms preventing unlicensed use, usage tracking understanding how customers consume content informing business decisions, and controlled distribution managing where and how content appears. These protections enable various business models including rentals, subscriptions, and pay-per-use.
Controversies and limitations include usability impacts where excessive restrictions frustrate legitimate customers, compatibility challenges across different devices and platforms, privacy concerns from tracking content usage, inability to use purchased content after service discontinuation, and effectiveness questions since determined attackers often defeat DRM eventually. Organizations must balance protection against customer satisfaction.
Legal frameworks including DMCA in United States prohibit circumventing DRM regardless of use purpose, while also providing limited exceptions for accessibility, security research, and other legitimate purposes. Organizations implementing DRM must understand legal protections and obligations in their jurisdictions.
Alternative approaches include watermarking for tracking rather than prevention, social DRM using customer information discouraging sharing, and relying on convenience and pricing rather than technological restrictions. Some content providers have abandoned DRM finding that customer experience and reasonable pricing provide better business results.
Option B is incorrect because open sharing enables unrestricted distribution rather than preventing unauthorized copying.
Option C is wrong because unrestricted copying allows unlimited duplication without protection.
Option D is incorrect because public distribution permits free sharing rather than controlling content access.
Question 125:
What security assessment evaluates organization’s ability to respond to cyber incidents?
A) Tabletop exercise
B) Marketing review
C) Budget planning
D) Product demonstration
Answer: A
Explanation:
Tabletop exercises evaluate organization’s ability to respond to cyber incidents through discussion-based scenarios where participants walk through incident response procedures, make decisions, and identify gaps in preparation without actually deploying technical responses. These cost-effective assessments test response capabilities, coordination, communication, and decision-making in low-stakes environments enabling learning and improvement before real incidents occur.
Exercise components include scenario development creating realistic incident situations appropriate for organizational risks and response capabilities, participant selection including technical responders, management, legal, public relations, and other relevant stakeholders, facilitation guiding discussion and ensuring all important aspects receive attention, documentation recording decisions and identifying issues, and after-action review discussing what worked well, what needs improvement, and documenting lessons learned for incorporation into response plans.
Scenarios vary by sophistication and focus including ransomware attacks testing response to widespread encryption, data breaches evaluating how organizations handle unauthorized access and potential disclosure, DDoS attacks addressing service disruption scenarios, insider threats examining detection and response to malicious employees, supply chain compromises testing response when vendors are compromised, and advanced persistent threats addressing sophisticated long-term intrusions. Multiple scenarios might combine testing comprehensive response capabilities.
Benefits include identifying plan gaps before real incidents expose them under pressure, building muscle memory through practice so responders know their roles, improving coordination between different teams and functions, validating assumptions about response capabilities and timelines, refining communication procedures, meeting compliance requirements mandating response testing, and demonstrating commitment to leadership building confidence in incident response capabilities.
Exercise frequency should occur regularly with annual comprehensive exercises supplemented by quarterly focused scenarios addressing specific capabilities or recent incidents providing learning opportunities. Organizations should rotate scenarios preventing over-familiarity with specific situations while testing different aspects of response plans.
Improvement integration requires documenting findings clearly, prioritizing identified gaps based on risk and impact, assigning remediation responsibilities with deadlines, tracking improvements to completion, and conducting follow-up exercises verifying improvements addressed issues effectively. Continuous improvement through regular exercise and refinement enhances organizational resilience over time.
Option B is incorrect because marketing review evaluates promotional activities rather than incident response capabilities.
Option C is wrong because budget planning addresses financial allocation rather than testing cyber incident response.
Option D is incorrect because product demonstration showcases features rather than evaluating response capabilities.
Question 126:
Which protocol provides secure network time synchronization?
A) Network Time Security
B) HTTP
C) FTP
D) SMTP
Answer: A
Explanation:
Network Time Security provides secure network time synchronization protecting Network Time Protocol from attacks that manipulate time information on systems. Accurate synchronized time is critical for security since authentication protocols, logging, certificate validation, and incident investigation all depend on correct timestamps. NTS prevents attackers from disrupting security mechanisms through time manipulation attacks.
Time synchronization importance extends beyond simple clock accuracy to security-critical functions including Kerberos authentication using time-based tickets that fail if clocks are misaligned, log correlation requiring synchronized timestamps for analyzing events across multiple systems, certificate validation checking expiration dates and not-valid-before constraints, digital signatures depending on accurate timestamps, two-factor authentication using time-based one-time passwords requiring clock synchronization, and legal evidence where accurate timestamps establish event sequences.
NTP vulnerabilities that NTS addresses include man-in-the-middle attacks where adversaries intercept and modify time information, spoofing attacks sending false time updates, replay attacks re-sending captured legitimate packets, and DoS attacks disrupting time services. These attacks enable authentication bypass, security control circumvention, and incident investigation interference by manipulating system times.
NTS security mechanisms include authenticated encryption protecting time information confidentiality and integrity, key establishment providing secure cryptographic key agreement between clients and servers, and certificate-based authentication ensuring clients synchronize with legitimate time servers rather than attacker-controlled systems. These protections prevent attackers manipulating time information even when controlling network infrastructure.
Implementation requires NTS-capable NTP servers and clients, proper certificate management for server authentication, and secure initial time acquisition before cryptographic operations requiring accurate time can begin. Organizations should use multiple diverse time sources preventing single point of failure and enabling detection of compromised or malfunctioning servers.
Time server hierarchy typically includes stratum 0 being atomic clocks and GPS receivers, stratum 1 servers synchronizing directly with stratum 0 references, stratum 2 servers synchronizing with stratum 1 servers, and continuing through additional levels. Organizations typically synchronize with stratum 2 or stratum 3 servers balancing accuracy against load on higher stratum servers.
Option B is incorrect because HTTP serves web content rather than providing secure time synchronization.
Option C is wrong because FTP transfers files without time synchronization capabilities.
Option D is incorrect because SMTP handles email transmission rather than providing time synchronization services.
Question 127:
What security mechanism creates isolated network segments for different security levels?
A) Network segmentation
B) Universal connectivity
C) Open network
D) Single broadcast domain
Answer: A
Explanation:
Network segmentation creates isolated network segments for different security levels, separating systems based on trust levels, sensitivity requirements, or functional roles while controlling traffic flow between segments through security devices. This fundamental security architecture prevents attackers easily moving throughout networks after initial compromise by creating boundaries requiring additional effort to cross.
Segmentation benefits include containment limiting breach impact by restricting what attackers can reach from compromised positions, reduced attack surface since systems have limited exposure to threats from other segments, improved compliance by isolating regulated data in dedicated segments with enhanced controls, simplified security management through consistent policies within segments, and performance improvements by reducing broadcast domains and optimizing traffic flows.
Implementation approaches include physical segmentation using separate network infrastructure providing maximum isolation but highest cost, VLAN segmentation creating logical separation through switch configuration offering flexibility without separate hardware, firewall segmentation placing security devices between zones controlling inter-segment traffic, and software-defined segmentation using network virtualization enabling dynamic policies. Organizations often combine approaches balancing security requirements against cost and complexity considerations.
Segmentation schemes vary by organizational needs including DMZ isolation for internet-facing systems separating public services from internal networks, user segregation keeping workstation networks separate from servers, application tier separation isolating web, application, and database layers, datacenter segmentation creating zones for different sensitivity levels, guest network isolation providing visitor WiFi without internal access, IoT device segmentation isolating Internet of Things devices from corporate systems, and operational technology separation protecting industrial control systems.
Micro-segmentation extends traditional approaches to finer granularity potentially isolating individual workloads or applications rather than large groups. This approach particularly suits virtualized and cloud environments where software-based controls enable dynamic segmentation without physical network changes. Zero trust architectures rely heavily on micro-segmentation ensuring verification occurs for every access request.
Traffic control between segments requires explicit policies defining allowed communications based on business requirements while blocking everything else by default. Organizations should document segment purposes, approved inter-segment communications, and security justifications for allowed traffic. Regular review ensures segmentation remains appropriate as business needs and threat landscape evolve.
Option B is incorrect because universal connectivity provides unrestricted communication rather than creating security segments.
Option C is wrong because open networks lack segmentation allowing unrestricted lateral movement.
Option D is incorrect because single broadcast domains eliminate segmentation benefits through flat network architecture.
Question 128:
Which security control prevents execution of scripts and macros in documents?
A) Application control
B) Unrestricted execution
C) Open processing
D) Unlimited macros
Answer: A
Explanation:
Application control prevents execution of scripts and macros in documents by blocking or restricting active content that attackers commonly use for malware delivery and system compromise. Organizations implement controls protecting against weaponized documents containing malicious macros, embedded scripts, or exploits that execute when users open seemingly legitimate files.
Document-based threats represent significant attack vectors since email attachments and file sharing enable widespread distribution, users routinely open documents as part of normal business operations, and many applications execute embedded content automatically or with minimal user interaction. Attackers exploit this by sending malicious documents disguised as invoices, resumes, reports, or other common business files.
Macro security specifically addresses Visual Basic for Applications and other scripting languages embedded in documents enabling automation and dynamic content but also providing full system access when exploited. Common attacks include macro malware downloading and executing additional payloads, document exploits triggering vulnerabilities in document processing, and social engineering convincing users to enable macros through fake security warnings or compelling pretexts.
Protection strategies include disabling macros by default requiring explicit user action to enable them, limiting macro execution to digitally signed code from trusted publishers, application whitelisting blocking document applications from executing certain processes like PowerShell or command interpreters commonly used by macro malware, and sandboxing opening potentially dangerous documents in isolated environments preventing system compromise.
Protected View in Microsoft Office opens documents from untrusted sources in read-only mode with active content disabled, requiring explicit user action to enable editing and active content. This defense-in-depth approach protects users even when they receive malicious documents by preventing automatic execution.
User education complements technical controls by teaching recognition of social engineering tactics pressuring macro enablement, verifying unexpected document senders before opening attachments, understanding security warnings and their implications, and reporting suspicious documents to security teams. However, technical controls provide more reliable protection than user vigilance alone.
Attack Surface Reduction rules in Windows Defender further limit document exploitation by blocking Office applications from creating executable content, preventing execution of potentially obfuscated scripts, and blocking credential theft from LSASS commonly performed by macro malware. These granular controls prevent specific attack techniques while allowing legitimate functionality.
Option B is incorrect because unrestricted execution allows all scripts and macros without security controls.
Option C is wrong because open processing permits active content without restrictions.
Option D is incorrect because unlimited macros allow unrestricted code execution in documents.
Question 129:
What security framework provides guidance for operational technology environments?
A) IEC 62443
B) Fashion guidelines
C) Restaurant standards
D) Retail practices
Answer: A
Explanation:
IEC 62443 provides comprehensive guidance for operational technology security specifically addressing industrial automation and control systems across sectors including manufacturing, energy, transportation, and critical infrastructure. This international standard recognizes fundamental differences between OT and IT environments requiring specialized security approaches addressing operational requirements, safety considerations, and technical constraints.
Standard structure organizes into four major categories including general considerations establishing terminology and concepts, policies and procedures addressing organizational security programs and risk management, system requirements defining security capabilities industrial automation systems should implement, and component requirements specifying security features individual components like PLCs, HMIs, and network devices should provide. This comprehensive structure addresses security from organizational strategy through technical implementation.
Security levels defined in the standard range from SL 0 providing no protection through SL 4 providing protection against intentional violation using sophisticated means with extended resources. Organizations select appropriate security levels based on risk assessment considering asset criticality, threat environment, and consequence of compromise. Different systems within facilities might require different security levels based on individual risk profiles.
Key concepts include defense-in-depth implementing multiple protective layers, security zones grouping similar assets with common security requirements, conduits controlling communications between zones, and lifecycle security addressing security throughout design, implementation, operation, and decommissioning phases. These concepts provide foundation for comprehensive industrial security programs.
Operational technology unique requirements addressed include safety priority where security must never compromise safe operations, real-time constraints preventing security controls introducing unacceptable latency, availability requirements since production downtime creates significant financial and potentially safety impacts, legacy systems lacking modern security features requiring compensating controls, and certification requirements where changes might invalidate safety certifications. Standard guidance respects these constraints
while providing practical security improvements.
Implementation guidance covers risk assessment methodating systematic evaluation of threats and vulnerabilities specific to OT environments, security program development establishing policies and procedures appropriate for industrial operations, technical controls selection choosing security mechanisms suitable for operational constraints, and continuous monitoring ensuring sustained security despite evolving threats. Organizations should adapt guidance to specific environments rather than applying prescriptively.
Integration with safety systems requires careful consideration ensuring security measures don’t interfere with emergency shutdown procedures, fail-safe mechanisms, or safety instrumented systems. Standard provides guidance addressing security and safety together rather than treating them as conflicting priorities.
Option B is incorrect because fashion guidelines address clothing rather than operational technology security.
Option C is wrong because restaurant standards address food service rather than industrial control system security.
Option D is incorrect because retail practices address sales operations rather than OT security frameworks.
Question 130:
Which attack exploits insufficient input validation to manipulate database queries?
A) SQL injection
B) Physical intrusion
C) Power failure
D) Network maintenance
Answer: A
Explanation:
SQL injection exploits insufficient input validation to manipulate database queries by inserting malicious SQL code into application inputs that are incorporated into database queries without proper sanitization. When applications concatenate user input directly into SQL statements, attackers inject commands that alter query logic enabling unauthorized data access, modification, or deletion.
Vulnerability occurrence happens when developers construct queries through string concatenation or interpolation combining static SQL with user input rather than using parameterized queries separating SQL structure from data. Common vulnerable inputs include login forms, search boxes, URL parameters, form fields, and any other user-controllable data incorporated into database queries.
Attack techniques vary in sophistication including basic injection adding SQL syntax to inputs closing original queries and executing attacker commands, union-based injection combining malicious queries with legitimate ones to extract data from different tables, blind injection inferring information through application behavior when direct data extraction isn’t possible, and time-based blind injection using database delay functions to extract information bit by bit when no visible output exists.
Exploitation consequences include authentication bypass through query manipulation always returning successful login results, data theft extracting sensitive information from databases, data modification changing records to commit fraud or cause disruption, privilege escalation gaining administrative database access, and complete system compromise through database features executing operating system commands. Successful exploitation provides extensive attacker capabilities.
Prevention requires treating all user input as potentially malicious implementing parameterized queries or prepared statements separating SQL structure from data so user input never influences query logic, input validation ensuring data matches expected formats rejecting malicious content, least privilege limiting database account permissions reducing exploitation impact, stored procedures encapsulating database logic reducing inline SQL, output encoding preventing injected SQL from executing, and web application firewalls providing additional detection and blocking layers.
Detection methods include web application firewalls identifying injection patterns in requests, intrusion detection systems recognizing attack signatures, database activity monitoring detecting unusual query patterns, penetration testing attempting injection during security assessments, and code review examining source code for vulnerable query construction. Organizations should employ multiple detection approaches throughout development and operations.
Option B is incorrect because physical intrusion involves unauthorized facility access rather than database query manipulation.
Option C is wrong because power failure disrupts electricity rather than exploiting input validation vulnerabilities.
Option D is incorrect because network maintenance performs upkeep rather than manipulating database queries.
Question 131:
What security mechanism ensures only authorized modifications to critical infrastructure?
A) Change control
B) Random alteration
C) Unplanned modification
D) Spontaneous update
Answer: A
Explanation:
Change control ensures only authorized modifications to critical infrastructure through systematic processes requiring documentation, approval, testing, and verification before implementing changes. This governance mechanism prevents unauthorized alterations that might introduce vulnerabilities, cause outages, or violate compliance requirements while maintaining audit trails documenting infrastructure evolution.
Change control processes include request submission documenting proposed changes with business justification and technical details, impact assessment evaluating potential effects on operations, security, and dependent systems, risk analysis identifying potential problems and mitigation strategies, approval workflows requiring authorization from appropriate stakeholders based on change risk and scope, implementation planning defining detailed procedures and rollback capabilities, testing verification in non-production environments ensuring changes work correctly, scheduled execution timing changes to minimize business impact, post-implementation review confirming successful deployment, and documentation updates reflecting new configurations.
Change categories establish appropriate processes based on impact where standard changes are pre-approved routine modifications following documented procedures, normal changes require full assessment and approval through change advisory boards, emergency changes address urgent issues through expedited processes while maintaining oversight, and major changes affecting critical systems or multiple components receive extensive review. Clear categorization ensures proportionate processes.
Integration with security ensures changes don’t introduce vulnerabilities through security review examining proposed modifications for security implications, vulnerability assessment scanning after changes detecting new weaknesses, configuration validation confirming security settings remain appropriate, and compliance verification ensuring changes maintain required controls. Security participation in change control prevents security degradation.
Benefits include reduced outages from well-planned changes avoiding preventable problems, improved security by preventing unauthorized modifications weakening controls, enhanced compliance through documented approvals and audit trails, better coordination among teams affected by changes, and simplified troubleshooting since documentation enables understanding what changed when problems occur. Systematic change management improves reliability and security simultaneously.
Challenges include balancing control against agility where excessive process impedes business responsiveness, determining appropriate review levels for different change types, maintaining documentation currency as systems evolve, and ensuring emergency procedures balance urgency against oversight. Organizations must tune processes matching their risk tolerance and operational requirements.
Option B is incorrect because random alteration lacks authorization and systematic oversight.
Option C is wrong because unplanned modification occurs without change control processes.
Option D is incorrect because spontaneous update bypasses required authorization and documentation.
Question 132:
Which security control protects against web application attacks at network boundaries?
A) Web application firewall
B) Physical fence
C) Door lock
D) Window barrier
Answer: A
Explanation:
Web application firewalls protect against web application attacks at network boundaries by filtering HTTP/HTTPS traffic between clients and web servers, blocking malicious requests before they reach vulnerable applications. WAFs provide critical protection for web applications since traditional network firewalls operating at lower layers cannot inspect application-layer attacks exploiting application logic and functionality.
WAF capabilities include SQL injection prevention blocking database attack attempts, cross-site scripting protection preventing malicious script injection, command injection blocking preventing operating system command execution, directory traversal prevention stopping unauthorized file access attempts, and protection against various OWASP Top 10 vulnerabilities. Comprehensive rule sets address known web attack techniques.
Deployment options include network-based appliances positioned before web servers inspecting all traffic, host-based agents running on web servers providing application-specific protection, and cloud-based services routing traffic through provider infrastructure offering protection without on-premises hardware. Organizations select deployment models based on performance requirements, management preferences, and architectural constraints.
Protection approaches include signature-based detection matching known attack patterns from regularly updated rule databases, behavioral analysis identifying anomalies from learned normal traffic patterns, and virtual patching providing temporary protection for application vulnerabilities until proper code fixes can deploy. Multiple approaches provide layered protection addressing different threat types.
Configuration management requires initial tuning establishing baseline rules without excessive false positives, ongoing refinement adjusting rules based on legitimate traffic patterns and newly discovered attacks, positive security models defining allowed actions rather than only blocking known attacks, and regular updates incorporating new attack signatures and techniques. Proper tuning balances security against operational impact.
Limitations include potential false positives blocking legitimate requests requiring careful tuning, false negatives missing sophisticated attacks bypassing rules, performance impact from traffic inspection requiring adequate capacity, and configuration complexity needing security expertise for effective management. WAFs complement but don’t replace secure coding practices and application security testing.
Option B is incorrect because physical fences control facility perimeter rather than protecting web applications.
Option C is wrong because door locks secure building entry rather than filtering web application attacks.
Option D is incorrect because window barriers provide physical protection rather than inspecting web traffic.
Question 133:
What type of security test verifies system behavior under abnormal conditions?
A) Fuzz testing
B) Normal operation
C) Standard usage
D) Expected function
Answer: A
Explanation:
Fuzz testing verifies system behavior under abnormal conditions by providing malformed, unexpected, or random inputs discovering how applications handle edge cases and invalid data. This technique identifies vulnerabilities including buffer overflows, input validation failures, exception handling errors, and resource exhaustion that might not surface during normal testing with valid inputs.
Fuzzing approaches include mutation-based fuzzing modifying valid inputs in random ways testing how applications handle slight deviations, generation-based fuzzing creating inputs from scratch based on protocol or format specifications enabling systematic exploration of input space, and intelligent fuzzing using feedback from execution to guide input generation toward unexplored code paths maximizing coverage. Each approach offers different advantages for discovering vulnerabilities.
Fuzzing targets include network protocol implementations testing message parsing and handling, file format parsers examining document and media processing, web applications providing malformed requests and parameters, APIs testing parameter validation and error handling, and embedded systems evaluating robustness of resource-constrained implementations. Any software accepting external input benefits from fuzz testing.
Vulnerability discovery through fuzzing identifies crashes indicating potential exploitation opportunities, hangs suggesting denial of service vulnerabilities, memory corruption potentially enabling code execution, exception handling failures exposing error information, and resource exhaustion enabling availability attacks. Systematic fuzzing across extensive input space uncovers issues traditional testing misses.
Automation enables exhaustive testing impossible manually through tools generating millions of test cases, monitoring execution detecting failures, reproducing issues for debugging, and reporting findings to developers. Modern fuzzers incorporate coverage guidance using code instrumentation directing fuzzing toward unexplored paths improving efficiency compared to purely random generation.
Integration into development processes includes continuous fuzzing throughout development detecting issues early when fixes are cheaper, regression testing ensuring previously discovered issues remain fixed, and pre-release fuzzing providing final validation before deployment. Organizations should establish fuzzing programs for security-critical software rather than one-time testing.
Limitations include incomplete coverage since infinite input possibilities mean fuzzing cannot guarantee finding all vulnerabilities, resource requirements for extensive testing campaigns, and need for skilled analysis interpreting results and determining exploitability. Despite limitations, fuzzing provides valuable security testing complementing other assessment techniques.
Option B is incorrect because normal operation uses expected inputs rather than testing abnormal conditions.
Option C is wrong because standard usage follows typical patterns rather than exploring edge cases.
Option D is incorrect because expected function testing uses valid inputs rather than malformed data.
Question 134:
Which security mechanism prevents unauthorized access to mobile devices?
A) Device authentication
B) Open access
C) Public use
D) Shared access
Answer: A
Explanation:
Device authentication prevents unauthorized access to mobile devices through mechanisms requiring users proving their identity before accessing device functionality and data. Mobile devices require strong authentication since they often contain sensitive business and personal information while being easily lost or stolen creating significant exposure risks.
Authentication methods for mobile devices include PIN codes providing basic protection through numeric passwords, pattern locks requiring specific screen gestures, password authentication supporting alphanumeric credentials with complexity requirements, biometric authentication using fingerprints, facial recognition, or iris scanning providing convenient strong authentication, and multi-factor approaches combining multiple methods for enhanced security. Organizations should mandate authentication meeting security requirements appropriate for device data sensitivity.
Mobile-specific considerations include balancing security against convenience since frequent authentication impacts usability, selecting appropriate timeouts locking devices after inactivity periods, implementing wipe capabilities remotely erasing devices after repeated failed authentication attempts, and providing recovery mechanisms enabling legitimate access when users forget credentials. Mobile authentication must accommodate varying usage patterns and environments.
Enterprise mobility management solutions centrally enforce authentication requirements across organizational devices through policies mandating minimum password complexity, requiring biometric authentication for sensitive applications, configuring automatic lock timeouts, enabling remote wipe for lost or stolen devices, and monitoring compliance reporting devices not meeting requirements. Centralized management ensures consistent protection across diverse mobile fleets.
Biometric authentication popularity on mobile devices stems from convenience enabling quick access without memorizing complex passwords and security providing stronger authentication resistant to observation or guessing. However, biometric considerations include permanence where compromised biometrics cannot be changed like passwords, privacy concerns from biometric data collection, and spoofing risks requiring liveness detection.
Additional mobile security controls complement authentication including device encryption protecting stored data even if authentication is bypassed, secure boot preventing unauthorized operating system modifications, application sandboxing isolating apps from each other, and mobile threat defense detecting and preventing mobile-specific attacks. Comprehensive mobile security requires multiple integrated controls.
Option B is incorrect because open access allows unrestricted device use without authentication.
Option C is wrong because public use enables access without requiring identity verification.
Option D is incorrect because shared access permits multiple users without individual authentication.
Question 135:
What security framework addresses supply chain risk management?
A) NIST SP 800-161
B) Fashion guidelines
C) Cooking standards
D) Sports regulations
Answer: A
Explanation:
NIST Special Publication 800-161 addresses supply chain risk management providing guidance for protecting against threats throughout supply chains including hardware, software, and service providers. Organizations face increasing supply chain risks as attackers recognize that compromising trusted suppliers provides access to multiple targets making supply chains attractive attack vectors.
Supply chain threats include counterfeit products introducing substandard or malicious components, malicious insertions where attackers embed backdoors or vulnerabilities during manufacturing or distribution, poor development practices creating unintentional vulnerabilities, intellectual property theft revealing sensitive designs or data, and disruptions affecting availability when suppliers face incidents or disasters. These diverse threats require comprehensive risk management approaches.
Framework guidance covers enterprise-level considerations establishing governance and strategic planning for supply chain risk management, organizational processes implementing policies and procedures throughout acquisition lifecycles, and technical controls protecting systems from supply chain-introduced risks. This multi-level approach addresses supply chain security holistically rather than focusing narrowly on technical controls alone.
Risk assessment processes identify critical suppliers and products, evaluate supplier security practices, assess potential impacts from supply chain compromises, analyze threat sources and motivations, and prioritize risks for mitigation. Organizations should understand their supply chains comprehensively including all tiers of suppliers since risks propagate through supply chain relationships.
Mitigation strategies include supplier security requirements establishing minimum acceptable security standards in contracts, supplier assessments evaluating security practices before selection and periodically during relationships, secure development practices requiring suppliers following secure coding and testing standards, supply chain diversity avoiding single points of failure through multiple suppliers, code review and testing verifying received products lack malicious content, and continuous monitoring detecting anomalous behaviors potentially indicating compromise.
Software supply chain security has gained particular attention following high-profile attacks where compromised update mechanisms distributed malware to thousands of organizations. Software Bill of Materials initiatives provide transparency about software components and dependencies enabling risk assessment and vulnerability management throughout software lifecycles.
Organizations should establish supply chain risk management programs integrating with broader enterprise risk management, procurement processes, and security operations rather than treating supply chain risks as separate concerns.
Option B is incorrect because fashion guidelines address clothing rather than supply chain risk management.
Option C is wrong because cooking standards address food preparation rather than supply chain security.
Option D is incorrect because sports regulations govern athletics rather than addressing supply chain risks.